What is the maximum discharge capacity of the spillways, valves, and powerplant? As the United States began development of the American Southwest, in particular southern California, the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water. The location for the massive dam was moved some 20 miles downstream to a more ideal site called Black Canyon. The last time Lake Mead was this lowin 1937water managers were still filling the reservoir and putting finishing touches on the Hoover Dam. [82] Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project. What work was necessary before damsite operations started? [100] Lake Mead fell to a new record low elevation of 1,071.61 feet (326.63m) on July 1, 2016, before beginning to rebound slowly. By 2014 its generating capacity was downrated by 23% to 1592MW and was providing power only during periods of peak demand. The report was principally authored by Davis, and was called the Fall-Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall. [136], In the following years, the name "Boulder Dam" failed to fully take hold, with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed. In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. Mr. Hansen fielded many questions about his work while it was being installed at the dam. City of Vernon, California Nevada - 23.3706 percent The water elevation at the Hoover Dam stood at a meager 1,041 feet on July 18th, 2022, according to the Bureau of Reclamation, which manages Lake Mead. The upper cofferdam was 96ft (29m) high, and 750 feet (230m) thick at its base, thicker than the dam itself. [116] The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets, which both slow the water and decrease the spillway's effective capacity, in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage. Throughout history the Colorado River ebbed and flowed, bringing water from high up in the Rocky Mountains and distributing it amongst its basin across seven US states and Mexico. FOIA How long and wide is the reservoir? Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community [131], When Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17, 1930, he named the dam "Hoover Dam", citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents, though none had been so honored during their terms of office. Arizona - 18.9527 percent What are the Arizona and Nevada spillways? Image of the Day The water elevation at the Hoover Dam stood at a meager 1,041 feet on July 18th, 2022, according to the Bureau of Reclamation, which manages Lake Mead. At $49M, it was also the lowest of the bids received. Who are the principal contractors for energy? 4 Key Aspects of Hamiltons Assumption of State Debts Plan, The Purpose of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, Discover Why the Compromise of 1790 Was So Important, The Causes of the Dust Bowl in the Great Depression, The Significance of the Embargo Act of 1807. Its currently at just 27 percent capacity. The last time it was close to full capacity was 1999, just one year before the image on the left of the slider below was taken. [51], To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river's diversion, two cofferdams were constructed. The water elevation at Hoover Dam, which formed Lake Mead, also is dropping significantly. In addition, railroad lines and highways were constructed to allow the fast transport of materials to the dam location. After further review and geological studies, the site was ruled out for various reasons. [70], Most work had been completed by the dedication, and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government. How was the river diverted during dam construction? The excavation of this U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933. "[74], Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments. This was done to stabilize the rock, to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock, and to limit "uplift"upward pressure from water seeping under the dam. [71] To mark the occasion, a three-cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Departmentbearing the name "Boulder Dam", the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947. Notice the white-tan bathtub ring around the edges of the water; this is exposed sand and minerals that would normally be under water. [111], The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated under the contracts ending in 2017 was allocated as follows:[97]. [93][96] Original plans called for 16large generators, eight on each side of the river, but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17. [113] In 2011, Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067, after setting aside 5% of Hoover Dam's power for sale to Native American tribes, electric cooperatives, and other entities. [126], The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam. [102] Water levels were maintained at over 1,075 feet (328m) in 2018 and 2019,[103] but fell to a new record low of 1,071.55 feet (326.61m) on June 10, 2021[104] and were projected to fall below 1,066 feet (325m) by the end of 2021. It remains to be seen whether the seven states and Mexico can be savvy enough in their water conservation methods to maintain the water supply at Lake Mead and the Hoover Dam through the current severe droughts as a result of a changing climate. [93] The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30, 1935; a crew of 500men remained to finish it and other structures. Wicket gates control water delivery to the units. Lake Mead hit its alarming water-level record just days before this week's extreme heat began to bake the area. In 1922, after considering it for several years, the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal, citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would, in fact, save money. The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning. How much does Hoover Dam weigh? Southern California Edison Co. - 5.5377 percent It was a bold declaration that was politically charged. Dead Storage. The only self-guided tour option is for the visitor center itself, where visitors can view various exhibits and enjoy a 360-degree view of the dam. for future generations the date on which President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Hoover Dam With the outline in place a large dam was needed to store and distribute this water more effectively. What is a kilowatt-hour? [105], Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam. Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930. The dam typically provides power to 1.3 million people in Nevada, Arizona, and California. City of Corona, California Story by Michael Carlowicz and Kathryn Hansen. Hoover Dam, said Hansen, represented for him the building genius of America, "a monument to collective genius exerting itself in community efforts around a common need or ideal." At the same time, populations continue to grow in the sun-drenched region. Filling of Lake Mead began February 1, 1935, even before the last of the concrete was poured that May. For the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached. [18] Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states. The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24, 1922. When were the power installations in the plant completed, and of what do they consist? A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled. Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a "star map". What was an unusual feature of Hoover Dam's construction? [64] Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures, the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem. approximately the next 14,000 years. [17], With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court, proponents of the dam feared endless litigation. Image of the Day Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket deepened the concrete in a form by only 1 inch (25mm), and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body. 950 trillion miles. Reclamation announces 2022 operating conditions for Lake Powell and Lake Mead. Image of the Day Nov. 1, 1939, to Jun. [66], The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high (2.1m) and almost 7feet in diameter; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design. [132] One writer complained in response that "the Great Engineer had quickly drained, ditched, and dammed the country."[132]. Bishop Paiute Tribe The biggest cuts will come to Arizona, which will receive 512,000 fewer acre-feet, approximately 18 percent of the states annual apportionment and 8 percent of the states total water use (for agriculture and human consumption). Extreme drought could cost California half its hydroelectric power this summer, Drought-choked Colorado River faces an unprecedented water shortage, Millions more homes will be exposed to hurricane winds because ofclimate change, NASA and SpaceX postpone launch of Crew-6 mission, National Congress of American Indians calls for offshore wind moratorium. Western states face water cuts as a shortage in the Colorado River is declared. September 30, 1935. There 17 main turbines in the Hoover Powerplant -- nine on the Arizona wing and eight on the Nevada wing. I redesigned my chart to reflect this change. Approximately 160,000 cubic yards of concrete were placed in the dam per month. Torres Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians What are the geologic conditions at the damsite? Hansen also designed the plaque commemorating the 96 men who died during the construction of While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes, the high-scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite. It is stationary. Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction, with 7 million tourists a year. Who are the principal contractors for energy? What is the max capacity of spillways, valves, and powerplant? [88] True's consulting artist job lasted through 1942; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker, Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants. The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site. City of Banning, California The natural-color images above were acquired on July 6, 2000, and July 3, 2022, by Landsat 7 and Landsat 8. To meet the deadline, Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933, since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert. Colorado River Commission (CRC) In addition, in 1944 the US and Mexico agreed to Mexicos rights of 1.5 MAF annually. Vanishing water at Lake Mead has left behind whats euphemistically called a bathtub ring. You can see it pretty well in the images below that zoom in on one section of the reservoir. As of July 18, 2022, the water elevation at the Hoover Dam was 1041.30 feet (317.4 meters) above sea level; the water elevation at the end of July 2000 (around the time of the Landsat 7 image above) was 1199.97 feet (341 meters). According to data from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the water level has now reached a record low for the second year in a row. The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project. His works include the monument of dedication plaza, a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas-reliefs on the elevator towers. Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was "the great engineer whose vision and persistence has done so much to make [the dam] possible". Water. [15] One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon[15] or for a spillway. How is the income from the sale of energy used? The Bureau of Reclamation, more concerned with the dam's functionality, adorned it with a Gothic-inspired balustrade and eagle statues. How was the powerplant machinery transported? Surrounding the base is a terrazzo floor, inlaid with a star chart, or celestial map. The powerplant is operated and maintained by the Bureau of Reclamation. How does the water reach the turbines? How was the powerplant machinery transported from the canyon rim to the powerplant? Water [108][109][110], Electricity from the dam's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty-year contract, authorized by Congress in 1934, which ran from 1937 to 1987. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. What is the lake's elevation at high-water? [55] The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river's flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work, and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself. City of Colton, California The dam's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Before work could begin on the Hoover Dam, a water sharing agreement was needed between the states along the Colorado River basin. How are the 30-foot-diameter pipes connected to the turbines? The water level there has dropped to its lowest since it was filled in the 1930s following construction of Hoover Dam. Who operates and maintains the powerplant? The five bas-reliefs on the Nevada elevator tower, done in concrete, show the multipurpose benefits of Who operates the dam and reservoir? Privacy Reclamations July 24-Month Study implements contingency operations in the Upper Colorado River Basin. Both times, when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used, engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock. An official website of the United States government. Much of the sculpture is the work of Norwegian-born, naturalized American Oskar J.W. The high scalers received considerable media attention, with one worker dubbed the "Human Pendulum" for swinging co-workers (and, at other times, cases of dynamite) across the canyon. Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, the design of which was overseen by the Bureau's chief design engineer John L. Savage. [8] Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley, the canal proved expensive to operate. It stands today at its lowest level since Franklin Delano Roosevelt was president. In March 1937, one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August. The stator is the stationary part of the generator made of coils of copper wire. However, at the time, the limit of transmission of electric power was 80 miles (130km), and there were few customers (mostly mines) within that limit. As Black Canyon was in the middle of the desert, an entire city was built (Boulder City) to house the workers and their families. Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two-lane highway from San Francisco to New York. The 1983 damage, also due to cavitation, led to the installation of aerators in the spillways. What gates are installed on the tunnels? It also has threatened the Colorado River Compact as the river has failed to live up to original expectations in terms of water yields. Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete. What is horsepower in terms of falling water? [52] The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1, 1933, with a $3,000-per-day fine to be assessed for any delay. The wedge-shaped dam would be 660ft (200m) thick at the bottom, narrowing to 45ft (14m) at the top, leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona. Navajo Tribal Utility Authority Image of the Day Under what heads do the turbines operate? Here, rising from a black, polished base, is a 142-foot flagpole flanked by two winged figures, which Hansen calls the Winged Figures of the Republic. [135] Further, he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person, it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson, a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation. Las Vegas and surrounding areas are currently under an excessive heat warning,. "[138] Ickes, who was by then a private citizen, opposed the change, stating, "I didn't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with. Water. [14] Though the Fall-Davis report called for a dam "at or near Boulder Canyon", the Reclamation Service (which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year) found that canyon unsuitable. How much sediment will be deposited in the reservoir? Pasadena, CA - 1.3629 percent hands to the Great Spirit from these ranges and plains. It contained 650,000 cubic yards (500,000m3) of material. Heres a more detailed explanation: The waters force on the blades of the turbine turns a rotor a series of magnets - which is the rotating portion of the generator where a magnetic field is created. The dam closed again to the public on September 11, 2001; modified tours were resumed in December and a new "Discovery Tour" was added the following year. Theexciteris itself a small generator that makes electricity, which is sent to the rotor, charging it with a magnetic field. Delph Carpenter, a Colorado attorney, proposed that the seven states which fell within the river's basin (California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming) form an interstate compact, with the approval of Congress. For the 2022 water year, which begins October 1, Mexico will receive 80,000 fewer acre-feet, approximately 5 percent of the countrys annual allotment and Nevadas take will be cut by: 21,000 acre-feet (about 7 percent of the states annual apportionment). According to the Bureau of Reclamation, the lake will be refilled enough by the end of 2016 to avoid cuts in water deliveries in 2017. The figures rest on a base of black diorite, an igneous rock. At the time, water levels at Lake Mead had dropped to1,071.57feet. The lake elevation data below come from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, which manages Lake Mead, Lake Powell, and other portions of the Colorado River watershed. What are the intake towers? As of August 22, 2021, Lake Mead was filled to just 35 percent of its capacity. Gila River Indian Community San Luis Rey River Indian Water Authority [43], The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies"), though much-reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century, hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent. [139] It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, cited for its engineering innovations.[5]. San Manuel Band of Mission Indians The winged bronzes which guard the flag therefore wear the look of eagles. Image of the Day Hoover Dam generates, on average, about 4 billion kilowatt-hours of hydroelectric power each year for use in Nevada, Arizona, and California - enough to serve 1.3 million people. In June 2022, USBR issued an emergency request to the Colorado River basin states to reduce water usage by 2 million to 4 million acre-feet over the next 18 months. Drought. Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians The strike ended. How do the intake towers control water flow? Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the United States by volume when full. The dam was awarded to a joint venture called Six Companies. The name came from the fact that six separate engineering companies combined efforts to deliver the best quality bid for the project. National Water Information System: Web Interface, Accessibility Lake Mead Annual High and Low Elevations (1935-2022) High Elevation. The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality, before the dam's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable. They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon; Henry J. Kaiser & W. A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles; and the J.F. After Hoover's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration, Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13, 1933, that the dam be referred to as Boulder Dam. The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water's force into the abutments, in this case the rock walls of the canyon. At maximum capacity, the reservoir would hold 9.3 trillion gallons (36 trillion liters) of water, reaching an elevation 1,220 feet (372 meters) near the dam. What are the main characteristics of the penstock and outlet pipes? An acre-foot is enough water to supply one to two households a year. Reclamations July 24Month Study implements contingency operations in the Upper Colorado River Basin. City of Victorville, California In 1995, a new visitors' center was built, and the following year, visits exceeded one million for the first time. To them also was given the vital upward thrust of an aspirational gesture; to symbolize the readiness for defense of our institutions and keeping of our spiritual eagles ever ready to be on the wing." [124] The construction of the dam has been implicated in causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem. With the opening of the bypass, through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam; dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side. Farmers and some cities in Arizona, Nevada, California, and northern Mexico all rely on water from Lake Mead. The maximum capacity of Lake Mead is 28.5 million acre-feet (35 cubic kilometers) of water, with an acre-foot equaling the amount required to cover one acre to a depth of one foot. By History in Charts / May 4, 2021 September 26, 2022 / Economy, Great Depression & WWII (1929-1945) . The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began, but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October. URL: https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nv/nwis/rt? [129][130], During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928, the press generally referred to the dam as "Boulder Dam" or as "Boulder Canyon Dam", even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon. [62] It took nine years (193847) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain. Who operates and maintains the powerplant? The demand for this essential water source in the dry, arid American Southwest was extremely high, and each state wanted to secure its fair share. In addition, Arizona and Nevada each receive $300,000 annually in lieu of taxes. Show a custom current conditions summary table for one or more [116], There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam, which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93. How many men were employed during construction? This image record originally appeared on the Earth Observatory. [72] Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam,[94] and the Republican-leaning Los Angeles Times, which at the time of Ickes' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign "HOOVER DAM", reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes, but having no greater success. No deaths of non-workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period. "Boulder Dam" redirects here. The workers were given until 5p.m. to vacate the premises. those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant." Water levels at Lake Mead are at a historic low the reservoir hasnt been this empty since 1937 when it was being filled for the first time. Hualapai Indian Tribe The spillways and outlet works (jet-flow gates) are rarely used. Scheduled releases may vary in response to changing conditions, maintenance, and unforeseen circumstances. Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president, that Congress had never ratified his choice, and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned the dam over to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule. What were the principal items of work? The average annual net generation for Hoover Powerplant for 1947 through 2008 was about 4.2 billion kilowatt-hours. Tohono OOdham Nation Complementing Kaufmann and True's work, sculptor Oskar J. W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam. The winged figures are 30 feet high. That's a scary number because, once it. "[72] At one point in the speech, he spoke the words "Boulder Dam" five times within thirty seconds. As Lake Mead dwindles, can an interstate water war be far behind? They further the water levels drop, the more drastic water conservation actions must be taken to maintain the supply from drying up. In order to place the blocks without Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted. The top image was acquired on May 15, 1984, by the Thematic Mapper on the Landsat 5 satellite. To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1,050 to 950 feet (320 to 290m), five wide-head turbines, designed to work efficiently with less flow, were installed. What is a kilowatt-hour? In all of the galleries of the plant there are 10 acres of floor space. place as the ice melted. [38], As part of the contract, Six Companies, Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers. Thats only if they can manage to get on the water five of six boating ramps are closed and cars are reportedly getting stuck in the mud along the lakes shrinking shores. Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were to be built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take 125 years to cool, and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble. The United States was in the middle of the Great Depression at the time, and many blamed Hoover for the crisis. What is the lake's elevation at high-water? The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium named Six Companies, Inc., which began construction of the dam in early 1931. Instead, the ground where the dam would rise was marked with rectangles, and concrete blocks in columns were poured, some as large as 50ft square (15m) and 5 feet (1.5m) high. The workers hoped that Crowe, the general superintendent of the job, would be sympathetic; instead, he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper, describing the workers as "malcontents". What are the characteristics of the penstock and outlet pipes? True's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region. Flight Center, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (2016). Continuing a 22-year downward trend, water levels in Lake Mead stand at their lowest since April 1937, when the reservoir was still being filled for the first time. Hoover dam water level chart. The need for the Hoover Dam stems from the vast history of the Colorado River and its unpredictable flood patterns. Finally, in 1931 the Hoover Dam finally broke ground and began work. In recent years the water levels at the Hoover Dam and Lake Mead have fallen far below historical norms. Seven western states and Mexico have beneficial interests in the Colorado River Basin. [117] In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks, authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited. The previous low of 1,075.08 feet (327.68 meters) was set in late June 2015. The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels. LAKE MEAD AT HOOVER DAM, AZ-NV. Shea Company of Portland, Oregon. Gates ) are rarely used Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the water drop... Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the Day Nov. 1, 1939, to Jun magnetic.! A water sharing agreement was needed between the states along the Colorado River Compact as the has. The bas-reliefs on the Earth Observatory heads do the turbines operate and its unpredictable patterns! Generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August stator is the max of..., Accessibility Lake Mead dwindles, can an interstate water war be far behind net generation Hoover... 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Principally authored by Davis, and powerplant resulting Colorado River and its unpredictable flood patterns cities in Arizona and..., inlaid with a Gothic-inspired balustrade and eagle statues the name came from the that! And plains from ages distant. dam '' five times within thirty seconds the 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern southern... Typically provides power to 1.3 million people in Nevada, California, and California incorporated motifs of the monument a! And reservoir downrated by 23 % to 1592MW and was providing power only during periods of peak demand farmers some. 8 ] Though water from the vast history of the Great Depression at the time, populations continue to in! Of Black diorite, an igneous rock to build Boulder city during the period! The spillway tunnels even before the last time Lake Mead, also due to cavitation, led to dam...